The Infinite Machine: How an Army of Crypto-hackers Is Building the Next Internet with Ethereum | learnings, thoughts, notes
This blog is the second one in my series of blogs covering the fascinating world of cryptocurrencies and beyond! You can check out the first blog here, which covers the “Digital Gold” book.
In this one, I’ll be sharing my thoughts, learnings, and notes from the book “The Infinite Machine: How an Army of Crypto-hackers Is Building the Next Internet with Ethereum” by Camila Russo.
Similar to the last blog, you should read this book if you’re interested in the history, people, stories, and a high-level overview of what Ethereum is and the inspiring story that led to its development.
Before I share my notes and some people you should probably check out on Twitter, let me give you a short summary of the book…🌈🦄
A TL;DR
Ethereum’s white paper was published back in 2013 by Vitalik Buterin, a 19-year-old “kid programmer”.
He got in the crypto-space back in 2011, when he was only 17 years old. In these early days, he was trying to learn as much as he possibly could about Bitcoin, blockchains in general, and how these ideas may be leveraged to improve the world.
His passion was subsequently channeled into what came to be known as the Bitcoin Magazine, which he jointly started together with Mihai Alisie, whom Vitalik had never met personally until that moment of time.
After spending some time in crypto he started his Bitcoin tour by traveling around the world attending various Bitcoin events (he’d basically stay at friends’ apartments to spare the money he collected). This gradually got him connected with the developers of Mastercoin and Colored Coins projects.
Their idea was to build on top of the Bitcoin blockchain and extend it in various different ways so that it can support creating new coins and manipulating real-world assets, and not just currencies.
After his deep engagement with Bitcoin, Mastercoin, and Colored Coins projects the idea was born in his mind on how he could further generalize all of their ideas — that’s how Ethereum came to be.
The name “Ethereum” itself was inspired by the disproved concept of “ether” that was hypothesized to be the substance that carries the light waves through space, hinting at the ambition that Ethereum could, one day, become a decentralized global computer that would support all of the future distributed applications.
He basically thought that instead of building one feature at a time on top of Bitcoin, which obviously wouldn’t scale up as it’s impossible to anticipate all the things that’ll eventually be built on top of it, it’d be better to create a programming language (Solidity) that can simply be used to program arbitrary functionality on top of a blockchain (inside the so-called smart contracts).
The initial days of Ethereum development were hectic. There were more than 10 “co-founders” and most of them were building Ethereum from a spaceship-looking house in Zug, Switzerland.
After certain internal fights, Vitalik decided that there’ll be “only” 8 co-founders.
Since then people have been proposing various ideas that could be built on top of Ethereum, stuff like:
- DAOs (decentralized autonomous organizations) — the idea is to create a trustless organization whose rules will be executed by the code and not by fallible and corruptable humans.
- DeFi (decentralized finance) — again the idea is to do fundamental financial operations without the unnecessary intermediaries.
And many others.
The most ambitious project, back in 2016, and one of the first DAOs was the so-called “The DAO”.
It was a decentralized funding organization where investors could invest their money (via Ether), get some “dai” tokens in return, and then use those to vote for certain whitelisted organizations. The actual Ether distribution would be done automatically without any intermediaries.
The idea was beautiful and pure, but the actual implementation taught us a lot about the potential problems with blockchains and open-source code in general.
The code was open-source and developed by humans, and as such, it had a fatal flaw — a bug that made it possible for malicious hackers to start draining the funds out directly into their own wallets. Additionally, thanks to the anonymity property of blockchains, the attackers ran away without any consequences.
All of this opened up an important question — what happens if a vital smart contract has an undiscovered bug?
The problem was solved by a largely controversial hard fork, that corrected the code in such a way that the original owners kept their coins and the attacker was left empty-handed. Most miners decided to pull the newest code changes.
The event was controversial because it showed that even in the world of cryptocurrencies some organizations are “too big to fail” and can be bailed out by the centralized authority. Similar to how governments bail out banks during severe recessions, the very system that cryptocurrencies were trying to replace.
Interestingly enough, some miners didn’t agree with this decision so they continued mining using the pre-hardfork code. In this parallel universe, the attacker managed to escape with the stolen money. The new-old blockchain came to be known as the Ethereum Classic.
Fast forward to today, the main improvements that Ethereum still has on its backlog can roughly be split into 2 classes:
- Proof of Stake
- Scaling
The Proof of Stake is an alternative consensus algorithm in which instead of using the amount of compute (Proof of Work) as a proxy for who should have more “voting power” in the blockchain, it uses the number of coins that a user has as a proxy. So it’s a plutocratic system in a way.
The why behind PoS is fairly simple — PoW is warming up the planet. 😂
On the other hand, scaling is much more important if Ethereum is ever to become a global computer. Compared to payment systems such as Visa, and MasterCard which can process thousands of transactions per second, Ethereum is in the double-digit realm.
Scaling techniques can approximately be divided into 2 categories:
- Level 1 techniques will be directly implemented on the Ethereum blockchain itself. The main one is sharding i.e. allowing the nodes in the blockchain to only keep a fraction of the whole blockchain/ledger, without (seriously) jeopardizing the security of the system.
- Level 2 techniques are those that’ll be implemented in systems built on top of the Ethereum blockchain. Those include rollouts (ZK-rollouts, optimal rollouts, etc.), plasma, and others.
By combining the level 1 and level 2 techniques together, Ethereum can theoretically achieve a 100x speedup.
Note: I didn’t digress into what each of the concepts mentioned mean, as otherwise this summary would be worthy of a book.
Similar to the last blog in the series, next up, I’ll share my private notes, in the hope their structure or the very fact I’m doing it may help somebody. You can also just extract some keywords from my notes and do your own (re)search.
Finally, I’ll share a list of Twitter influencers I extracted from the book.
Super important tip reading the book: take notes while reading it!!! Because:
a) You’ll be a more active learner which will further help consolidate the knowledge from the book.
b) There is a lot of new names/actors that you’ll need to remember to follow along the story. Thank me later.
The Infinite Machine book notes
Chapter 1 (Mooning)
The hype of 2017, lush parties everywhere, scammers, hackers.
Vitalik as the voice of reason — is the value we produced truly worth a trillion $ market?
Chapter 2 (Cypherpunk’s Fever Dream)
The ideas of cypherpunks (Jude Milhon), open-source software (Richard Stallman), P2P, shaped the crypto community.
The problems of “double-spend” and “Sybil attack” (duplicating money and identities basically).
Proof-of-Work as the solution to the above attacks.
The story of the monetary crisis in Argentina.
A high-level description of how Bitcoin works and the story behind it.
“The Times 3 January 2009 Chancellor on brink of second bailout for banks.” <- a message hidden inside the 1st block on the Bitcoin blockchain! Basically, the reason why we need decentralized, trustless systems such as Bitcoin.
Vitalik Buterin is introduced, when he was 17 he wrote his 1st post on the Bitcoin forum.
Chapter 3 (The Magazine)
Mihai Alisie and Vitalik create the first (printed) Bitcoin magazine.
Chapter 4 (The Rabbit Hole)
The story of Anthony (who had rich parents and would go on to become Ethereum co-founder) and the meetup he organized that Vitalik accidentally attended.
Mihai invites Vitalik to Europe (who was in Waterloo, Canada) to work on Bitcoin Magazine and his crypto startup Egora. Vitalik says yes.
They end up in Calafou community/hacklab in Spain, founded by Enric Duran the inventor of the pyramid scheme.
Chapter 5 (The Swiss Knife)
Vitalik’s Bitcoin tour (He “couch-surfed” in order to save up some money!).
During the tour, he got invited to Israel by a Colored Coins’ dev Amir Chetrit.
Mastercoin — the 1st blockchain startup that had raised funds by selling its digital token (coins not created by work/mining but out of thin air). It allowed others to easily create novel currencies, plus it used smart contracts.
The term “smart contract” is mentioned (Nick Szabo coined it back in the 1990s). A nice metaphor is that a smart contract is like a “digital vending machine”.
Vitalik writes the white paper for Colored coins and contributes to Mastercoin as well.
He notices problems with both of these, generalizes the approach and this is how Ethereum is born.
Chapter 6 (The white paper)
Since Vitalik was a kid he was exposed to maths by his parents (who were in software engineering (dad) and finance (mum)).
He wrote his first “white paper” while he was still 7, he had a private maths tutor, and he was less sociable than other kids.
During his middle school, he joins a specialized private school. He also joins the debate team that must have played a role in his exceptional ability to explain complicated concepts in a more approachable way).
Travels all around the world to compete in maths and debating.
In 2011 Dmitry (his father) mentioned Bitcoin to Vitalik.
Starts writing in exchange for bitcoins (BitcoinTalk forum).
In Ripple’s office in SF (end of his Bitcoin tour) he coins the name Ethereum based on the word “ether”.
November 27, 2013 — the Ethereum white paper is written.
Chapter 7 (The First Responders)
You have to pay ether to run a piece of code on the Ethereum blockchain.
2 types of accounts exist on Ethereum:
- external accounts (controlled by someone’s private key)
- contract accounts (controlled by code)
A brief story of Charles Hoskinson (founder of Cardano), and how he created Bitcoin courses that made him famous in the crypto community which eventually ended up with him meeting various Bitcoin celebs and getting funding!
Charles builds Invictus with Dan and Stan who he “met” on the forums.
Decentralized Autonomous Organization (DAO) is introduced as a concept by Dan and Stan.
Charles gets fired and at that same time joins Ethereum as the co-founder.
All the cofounders gather in Miami.
Chapter 8 (The Miami House)
The story of Gavin Wood and how he wrote the 1st C++ implementation of Ethereum (invited to Miami with other Ethereum “co-founders”).
Discussions on the ownership of Ethereum.
Story of Jeff Wilcke (who worked for Mastercoin) and his Go implementation of Ethereum in Amsterdam.
Chapter 9 (The announcement)
Story of Joseph Lubin (another co-founder) and the 1st demo of Ethereum by Gavin.
Initial fights as Gavin (rightfully) wants to become the co-founder as well.
Vitalik’s talk at the Bitcoin conference was followed by a lot of hype.
Chapter 10 (The Town of Zug)
Early days, more than 10 co-founders worked from a tiny flat, doing the legal stuff, building the website, etc.
Charles was initially the CEO.
Chapter 11 (The Spaceship)
They are working in a weird building in Zug that looks like a spaceship.
Small fights start happening, Charles, the CEO, starts pushing for the for-profit structure and hints that he is Satoshi Nakamoto (others get annoyed).
Vitalik is in Silicon Valley at that same time.
Chapter 12 (The White-Shoe Lawyers)
Legal problems in defining Ether: is it a security or a commodity?
Gavin publishes the “yellow paper” that contains technical details described in Vitalik’s white paper.
Pryor Cashman, a white-shoe law firm, makes a letter stating that Ether is not a security — a green light!
Chapter 13 (The Red Wedding)
Big fight bursts out as the crowd sale was approaching — the co-founders sit at the table in Zug and share their grievances.
Vitalik gets Peter Thiel’s grant.
The decision falls to Vitalik to decide on the co-founders and the future of Ethereum.
He decides on 8 co-founders leaving out Amir and Charles (the CEO).
Chapter 14 (The (Non)Investment)
The presale heat and hype are building up — many are accusing them of scamming.
Lots of effort is put into convincing people that ether is not a security.
Chapter 15 (The Ether Sale)
The buyers only got a wallet and a password to avoid speculative trading before the platform was up and running.
Criticisms because of the pre-mining (creating coins out of thin air). The control is, contrary to cypherpunks’ spirit, centralized among “insiders” who participated in a presale.
July 22, 2014 — They raised 18.3M$!!! (60M ether priced at 30 cents).
Co-founders and the Ethereum Foundation additionally got (out-of-thin-air) 9.9% of the total amount of coins sold (60M) during the ICO.
Ethereum’s supply strategy: Uncapped supply of Ether with the declining rate (contrast that with Bitcoin’s perfect scarcity).
Lots of controversy about the presale — it seems that the wealth was very unevenly distributed and the charts were “unusually smooth” as if somebody was tinkering with the buying process (a bot).
Chapter 16 (Takeoff)
The story of Aurel, Paul, and the mining operation before Ethereum went live.
Ethereum had 9 proof of concepts and rigorous testing since the presale event!
A bigger team is forming around Ethereum.
12 seconds for a transaction to get accepted vs Bitcoin’s 10 minutes.
Stages of Ethereum development: Olympic, Frontier, Homestead, Metropolis, and Serenity (PoS, sharding).
Vitalik gave a 25k ether reward for the community to try to crash the Olympic release (9th proof of concept).
Joe Lubin (Ethereum co-founder) started building a startup on top of Ethereum — ConsensSys.
July 30, 2015 day of the launch!
March 2016 Ether saw a 30/40x increase in value which made people like Ken Seiff very rich.
Chapter 17 (The Shrinking Runway)
The only co-founders left were Vitalik, Gavin, and Jeff (the initial C++/Go Ethereum devs) — others started their own companies.
After Bitcoin plummeted, and since the foundation kept all of its money in Bitcoin, their finances became very weak.
Ming was introduced to try to keep the Ethereum foundation afloat.
Tribalism between Jeff’s (Go) and Gavin’s (C++) teams.
Gavin is removed from the foundation because he started a for-profit company Ethcore.
Chapter 18 (The First Dapps)
Jack and Joey build Augur — a Dapp built on top of the Ethereum blockchain for betting (“prediction market” platform). Augur raises 5.3 M$.
ERC20 was born — a template to create coins on top of Ethereum (20 because it was the 20th issue on Ethereum’s GitHub!)
Rune creates MakerDAO on top of Ethereum — the value prop is a stable coin pegged to USD ($).
MakerDAO brings “the best of both worlds “— decentralized but stable!
March 14, 2016 — a production-ready version released, dubbed “Homestead”.
DigixDAO — similar to MakerDAO they peg the token to 1 g of gold.
Chapter 19 (The Magic Lock)
Slock.it was supposed to be a decentralized alternative to Uber, Airbnb, etc.
The DAO, a decentralized venture fund, from Slock.it raises 150M$ in ether!!!
Chapter 20 (The DAO Wars)
A bug in The DAO logic was exploited (the fund that had over 200M$ in ether at that time!).
Soft fork proposed by Vitalik and the team as the last solution, and even worse, a hard fork that would undermine Ethereum’s legitimacy (centralized authority is bailing out a company — sounds familiar).
The white hat hackers team (“The Robin Hood group”) starts draining the main DAO using the same attack. The attacker also infiltrated their child DAOs — the “DAO wars” start.
Chapter 21 (The Fork)
The soft fork is out of the question because of the potential DDoS attack.
After doing a brief voting session (holders of only 5.5% of the total ether supply participated) — they decided to go for a hard fork.
The hard fork saved Ethereum and The DAO but some miners decided to keep using the pre-fork software version, and thus even the old blockchain was kept alive— it became the so-called Ethereum Classic.
The Robin Hood group wanted to return the money back to the rightful owners in ETH (Etherum), and not ETC (Ethereum Classic), but the exchanges didn’t allow the transaction to go through.
In the end, the attacker cashed out and gave a 1k ETC donation to the ETC Foundation.
Chapter 22 (The Shanghai Attacks)
The Geth client (Go implementation) had a bug that was exploited by the attackers just before the Shanghai Devcon2 Ethereum conference.
It was quickly patched and the community was very happy with the responsiveness of the dev team behind Ethereum.
More attacks on Ethereum followed — hard forks had to be done (this time these were not controversial as they’re not bailing out other companies).
The market and miners will decide which one of the 2 versions (after the hard fork, and if there is a disagreement) is more valuable in their opinion — that was the adopted model.
Chapter 23 (The Burning Wick)
The ICOs era — most new tokens were built on top of Ethereum because of ERC20 (which is a template for building new coins).
Crazy amount of hype — a gaming company raises money with a 1M$/minute rate, and subsequently closes down their sales after only 5 minutes (5.5M$)!
Taylor and Kosala are building an intuitive MyEtherWallet. During the Golem ICO they get too many buy requests and many angry responses from investors whose transactions didn’t go through — a glimpse of what is to come in 2017.
Chapter 24 (Accidentally Ether Rich)
It’s 2017 — event by event the prices of Bitcoin, Ether, and other altcoins are spiraling up.
Big companies like Microsoft, IBM, JPMorgan, etc. come on board the Enterprise Ethereum Alliance.
More money is being raised by selling tokens than by selling stocks.
Chapter 25 (The New IPO)
Brave (the browser founded by a guy who created Mozilla and JavaScript) sells 35M$ worth of BAT tokens in 30 seconds!!!
In order to get the ICO process under some control, Bancor adds gas fee limits (so that rich investors can’t skip the line), a 1-hour investing window, and an additional mechanism that’ll return all of the outstanding Ethers that went above their target funding amount.
The demand during Bancor ICO was crazy, 550M$+ worth of Ether was sent — by they took only a small amount of that as previously agreed.
A similar story with Status (https://status.im/)
“Ethereum wasn’t able to handle traffic from its first killer app: fundraising.” <- indication of scaling problems.
Chapter 26 (The Friendly Ghost)
Vitalik had a meeting with Vladimir Putin! 😂
He was attending many conferences, meetups, hackathons, meetings with CEOs and government officials — that helped him further improve his presentation and debating skills.
Vitalik hates wastefulness on every level and is pushing for proof of stake (PoS) since Ethereum’s inception.
He and Vlad Zamfir create the first PoS implementations called Casper CBC and FFG respectively.
Vitalik is also thinking about scaling (methods include: sharding, plasma, zero-knowledge proofs, state channels).
Sharding is the only method that’ll be implemented in layer 1, i.e. directly to Ethereum base blockchain, other methods will be in layer 2.
PoS and Scaling should be part of the Serenity release of Ethereum.
Chapter 27 (The Boom)
People took photos with Vitalik and subsequently used those to pump up the prices by faking that “they have Vitalik’s support”.
Ethereum’s market cap caught up with Bitcoin (more than 25% of the market cap came from Ethereum).
Lots of scam/troll coins (Jesus Coin, TrumpCoin, etc.).
More hype coming from influencers creates a positive feedback loop.
Bitcoin millionaires flexing on the internet with Lambos.
An explosion of memes and hashtags like “hodl”, #Tothemoon, #whenmoon, #whenlambo.
Ethereum captures 32% of the market cap in June 2017 (Bitcoin at 38%).
Multi-million $ Ether sell orders start triggering stop-loss orders — the price plunges and bounces back. Somebody said that Vitalik is dead — the price plunges, Vitalik tweets with a picture of the latest Ethereum block id.
SEC makes a statement that tokens are indeed securities — lawsuits and fees are possible.
Protocol Lab organizes an unfair/undemocratic ICO where only rich investors could participate (even in the public sale, in the private sale they had Andressen Horowitz and others), as is common in IPOs. The largest ICO so far at 257M$.
Ethereum’s Metropolis release is scheduled for October 2017. Miners’ block rewards are reduced so as to incentivize the transition to PoS.
A zero-knowledge proof feature is added.
Cryptokitties, collectible cats, are born (cats because they knew that the internet loves cats, so that’ll boost the virality coefficient) during the Waterloo hackathon (the idea itself was born before the actual hackathon during a brainstorm session).
ERC721 standard was created and it made it easy for others to build similar projects. Individual non-fungible “digital things” can now be traded, not just fungible currencies. NFTs (non-fungible tokens) are born.
Chapter 28 (Futures and Cats)
Bitcoin futures announced by the CME group — a big deal since that promises institutional investors money. ETFs were also rumored to come. Price skyrockets.
Dedicated funds for cryptocurrencies started popping up (hedge funds, etc.).
Rich crypto guys buying fancy houses.
Gavin Wood starts Polkadot (the idea is to connect all blockchains to create a decentralized web).
A bug leaves Polkadot without the money collected during their ICO.
Cryptokitties are launched in November 2017, the gaming aspect made them additionally viral.
At one point Cryptokitties accounted for 15% of total Ethereum transactions (some were sold for as much as 100k$!).
Cboe futures launch (CME a bit later as well).
PoS testnet (Casper FFG) launches on pyethereum.
If you bought Ether for 250$ back in the ICO days (when it was 30 cents) you’d be a millionaire in early 2018 (during the peak).
Chapter 29 (The Crash)
SEC starts charging ICO startups like Munchee (decentralized Yelp), which were legit, and fraudulent ones like AriseBank and others.
In January 2018 Bitcoin and Ether prices start plummeting — all the crypto enemies came down on crypto. The positive feedback loop.
The 2.6B$ Bitconnect scam.
Legit Ethereum projects like MakerDAO do exist.
Tether not backing up every USDT token with $ — they’re accused of pumping prices and producing coins out of thin air.
Exchanges accused of wash trading and thus of inflating the trade volume (some by as much as 95%!).
An exception to the downward slope of ICO funding was in June 2018, 4.2B$ was raised by Block.one’s EOS blockchain!!! (the idea is to replace Ethereum by having a much higher throughput)
It was the 2nd largest “IPO” in the USA just after Spotify at 9.2B$.
Accused of centralization (10 addresses account for 50% of the tokens) and market manipulation (they could trade tokens during the sale). Also, 20ish miners control the network.
The advisor to the project, Brock Pierce, was accused of sexual assaults back in the early 2000s.
Many other platforms were trying to replace Ethereum like Cardano, etc.
The bear market starts.
Chapter 30 (The Party)
DeFi starts getting its foothodl. An example of Ripio wallet with a “lend” button was described where you’d get the money from some random investor (who was probably somewhere in South Korea at that point in time) via a smart contract — no intermediaries!
Vitalik is sending out some of his Ethers to help out startups — VCs argued how this structure is not a sustainable way to fund startups.
“Collateral became a popular way for platforms to issue loans without having to screen each users’ credit score.”
MakerDAO is a good example of a successful DeFi platform.
The hype was reducing and the value that Ethereum was bringing was increasing — Vitalik happy, happy.
Early Ethereum dapps: Slock.it, The DAO, DigixDAO, MakerDAO, Augur.
That’s it! Hopefully, you found these somewhat useful. I know I did.
Now drum rolls.
People you should (probably) check out on Twitter
Here is a list of people I started following after reading the book, in no particular order (note I’ve omitted people from the last blog including Vitalik):
- gavofyork (Gavin Wood) — co-founder of Ethereum, wrote the 1st C++ implementation of Ethereum.
- IOHK_Charles (Charles Hoskinson) — Cardano (and Ethereum) co-founder.
- ethereumjoseph (Joseph Lubin) — co-founder of Ethereum and ConsenSys.
- CryptoCobain — co-founder of Ethereum (didn’t find him in the book, but he claims to be the co-founder, maybe just a meme ❤️).
- justinsuntron (Justin Sun) — founder of TRON.
- ummjackson, BillyM2k — Dogecoin founders.
- ChrJentzsch — founder of Slock.it
- roham — lead the group who started the NFT revolution.
- beeple (Michael Winkelmann) — his NFT “everydays” was sold for 69M$. He created the art that went into “everydays” over the span of 14 years. (5000 pictures in a mosaic is what was sold, i.e. the “ownership”)
- peter_szilagyi — the main Ethereum Go dev.
- tayvano — co-founder of MyEtherWallet.
- el33th4xor (Emin Sirer )— a CS prof who noticed The DAO bug.
- nayibukkele — president of El Salvador or CEO as he calls himself haha.
- aantonop (Andreas) — co-author of the “Mastering Ethereum” book.
- novogratz — an ex-Fortress investor that went into crypto.
- BitcoinMagazine (Vitalik stopped writing for it a long time ago)
Try and explore their feeds, and based on your preference start following those people whose ideas resonate with you.
But, also try and follow some people with whose ideas you don’t necessarily agree — you need a healthy dose of different opinions in your life. Who knows maybe you’re wrong and they are right. Be open-minded.
Finally, worth mentioning, while I was reading through the book, I came across some concepts that I thought were important enough to justify the digressions I made. ❤️
E.g., I wasn’t familiar with the term “Austrian economics”, so I did some YouTube search and came across these super valuable videos:
A second example would be Ayn Rand’s name. Her name triggered me to do some further research because I’ve stumbled upon her name way too many times. A spike occurred in my decision-making neuron — the rest is history. Here is a cool interview with her:
I’ve also done a mini-research on the phenomenon of Bitconnect, I found this great interview with Vitalik, plus I’ve previously listened to him on Lex Fridman’s and TimFeriss’s podcasts.
That’s it, I hope you learned something new!
If there is something you would like me to write about — write it down in the comment section or DM me. I’d be glad to write more about mathematics & statistics, ML/deep learning, CS/software engineering, landing a job at a big tech company, getting an invitation to prestigious ML camps, finance, etc., anything that could help you!
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